New Haven, VT, USADiedAugust 5, 1949
Seoul, South KoreaNationalityAmerican
Homer Bezaleel Hulbert (1863–1949) was an American missionary, journalist and political activist who advocated for the independence of Korea.
1863-1949 Homer Bezaleel Hulbert; failed to retrieve 고종Gojong's50million dollar worth of bank deposits1892 The Korean Repository (He was the editor of this monthly magazine)1889 Knowledge Necessary for All1903 Sign of the Jumna1903 Search for a Siberian Klondike1905 The History of Korea1905 Comparative Grammar of Korean and Dravidian1906 The Passing of Korea1907 The Japanese in Korea: Extracts from the Korea Review1925 Omjee - The Wizard1926 The Face in the Mist
See alsoEdit
Royal English School (육영공원 Korean Wikipedia)
After the shooting, Ahn yelled out for Korean independence in Russian, stating "Корея! Ура!", and waving the Korean flag.
Afterwards, Ahn was arrested by Russian guards who held him for two days before turning him over to Japanese colonial authorities. When he heard the news that Ito had died, he made the sign of the cross in gratitude. Ahn was quoted as saying, "I have ventured to commit a serious crime, offering my life for my country. This is the behavior of a noble-minded patriot."[11] Despite the orders from the Bishop of Korea not to administer the Sacraments to Ahn, Fr. Wilhelm disobeyed and went to Ahn to give the Last Sacraments. Ahn insisted that the captors call him by his baptismal name, Thomas.
첫째, 명성황후를 시해한 죄
둘째, 1905년 11월 한국을 일본의 보호국으로 만든 죄
셋째. 1907년 정미7조약을 강제로 맺게 한 죄
넷째, 고종황제를 폐위시킨 죄
다섯째, 군대를 해산시킨 죄
여섯째, 무고한 사람들을 학살한 죄
일곱째, 한국인의 권리를 박탈한 죄
여덟째, 한국의 교과서를 불태운 죄
아홉째, 한국인들을 신문에 기여하지 못하게 한 죄
열 번째, (제일은행) 은행지폐를 강제로 사용한 죄
열한번째, 한국이 300만파운드의 빚을 지게 한 죄
열두번째, 동양의 평화를 깨뜨린 죄
열세번째, 한국에 대한 일본의 보호정책을 호도한 죄
열네번째, 일본천황의 아버지인 고메이 천황을 죽인죄
열다섯번째, 일본과 세계를 속인 죄 등이다.
▲ 기존에 알려진 이토 처단 15가지 이유
1. 한국의 명성황후를 시해한 죄
2. 고종황제를 폐위시킨 죄
3. 5조약과 7조약을 강제로 맺은 죄
4. 무고한 한국인들을 학살한 죄
5. 정권을 강제로 빼앗은 죄
6. 철도, 광산, 산림, 천택을 강제로 빼앗은 죄
7. 제일은행권 지폐를 강제로 사용한 죄
8. 군대를 해산시킨 죄
9. 교육을 방해한 죄
10. 한국인들의 외국유학을 금지시킨 죄
11. 교과서를 압수하여 불태워버린 죄
12. 한국인이 일본인의 보호를 받고자 한다고 세계에 거짓말을 퍼뜨린 죄
13. 현재 한국과 일본사이에 경쟁이 쉬지않고 살육이 끊이지않는데 태평무사한 것처럼 위로 천황을 속인 죄
14. 동양평화를깨뜨린죄
15. 일본천황의 아버지 태황제를 죽인 죄
"15 reason why Ito Hirobumi should be killed.
1. Assassinating the Korean Empress Myeongseong
2. Dethroning the Emperor Gojong
3. Forcing 14 unequal treaties on Korea.[13]
4. Massacring innocent Koreans
5. Usurping the authority of the Korean government by force
6. Plundering Korean railroads, mines, forests, and rivers
7. Forcing the use of Japanese banknotes
8. Disbanding the Korean armed forces
9. Obstructing the education of Koreans
10.Banning Koreans from studying abroad
11.Confiscating and burning Korean textbooks
12.Spreading a rumor around the world that Koreans wanted Japanese protection
13.Deceiving the Japanese Emperor by saying that the relationship between Korea and Japan was peaceful when in truth it was full of hostility and conflicts
14.Breaking the peace of Asia
15.Assassinating the Emperor Komei.[14]
In the aftermath of the Hideyoshi fiasco, adding insults to injury, a Manchu army invaded Korea in 1627, which was repulsed, but nine years later in 1636, another Manchu army invaded Korea. The Land of Morning Calm became a desolate land of skeletons and starving people. After these catastrophic invasions, Korea shut itself off from the world and became a ‘hermit’ kingdom. Christian missionaries and other foreigners were expelled or executed. Borders were sealed shut and no one was allowed in or out. It was against law to fraternize with foreigners of any nationality.
The Chosen Kingdom remained sealed until 1876, when Japan forced it to sign the Treaty of Kanghwa (also known as Treaty of Friendship), and soon the United Stated and other nations followed the Japanese example. On May 22, 1882: Korea and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity, Friendship, and Mutual Defense at Chemulpo (today's Inchon). In 1904, the United States secretly nullified the Chemulpo Treaty in the Taft-Katsura Agreement. Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and the Chosun Kingdom was no more.
In 1582, a white-man, whom the Korean royal archive refers to as "Pingni" (or "Mari"), landed with several Chinese sailors on Cheju-do, an island of Korea. He was immediately deported to China via sea. His nationality is not known. He is the first white-man in Korea, although on an island and not on the mainland Korea, recorded in the Chosun court archive. (Lee Hae Gang, 2000)
Japanese Occupation - 1592 - 1598
The Chosun Kingdom was under constant attacks by Japanese pirates and Chinese bandits. In addition, China, Russia, and Japan made numerous attempts to occupy the nation. Thus, for example, in 1592, a 200,000-men Japanese army led by Shogun Hideyoshi invaded Korea and devastated the land. The Japanese were driven away in the following year, but they came back in 1597 and left Korea when Hideyoshi died in 1598. (imjin-waeran, 2002).
Photo: A replica of "Turtle" ship. The Korean navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-shin attacked Japanese transports with Turtle ships (kuh-buk-sun) - the first iron-clad warship in the world. The decks were covered with sharp spikes to deter enemy soldiers from boarding.
this paper describes how the decision to divide Korea along the 38th Parallel was made in 30 min by two American colonels.
Many Koreans use the Dangun calendar, which puts 2003 AD at 4336 Dangun. The first nation in Egypt, Narmer, was formed in 3185 BC and the first nation in China, Xia, was formed in about 2200 BC. Go-Chosun is one of the oldest known nations of the world, and the Korean race and culture are unique. Dangun's birthday and the Go-Chosum foundation day are celebrated in Korea.
Go-Chosun fell in 108 BC to Han China. From the ashes of Go-Chosun, there arose three Korean kingdoms: Silla in 57 BC, Koguryo in 37 BC, and Baikje in 18 BC. Baekje and Silla occupied southern Korea while Koguryo occupied Manchuria and northern regions of Korea. Silla, after decades of warfare, united Korea in 668 AD.
Silla imploded in 935 AD from internal conflicts and the Koryo Kingdom came into being. The word ‘Corea’ originally came from “Koryo”. Mongols invaded Koryo in 1238 and ruled it for about a century. Kublai Khan launched two disastrous invasions of Japan from Korea, in both attempts, tens of thousands of Koreans and hundreds of Korean ships, forced to serve the Mongols, perished in kamikaze (divine winds - typhoons).
In 1592, Japan's Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded Korea. One of his generals, Konishi Yukinaga (Roman name, Augustin Arimandono), a devout Roman Catholic, was accompanied by a Portuguese Jesuit priest, Gregorio de Céspedes (1550-1611). Father Gregorio arrived in Korea on December 27, 1593 and left in April 1594. He is believed to be the first white-man to set foot on the Korean peninsula.
Another Jesuit priest, Francesco Carletti, who was in Japan at the time of Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, stated in a letter home that some 300,000 Koreans were taken to Japan as prisoners of war and sold off as slaves.
Father Carletti bought five of the Korean slaves - dirt-cheap. Later, his Korean slaves became Christian converts, and one of them, Antonio Correa (1578?-1626), went to Holland with Father Carletti and became the first Korean to live in Europe. In about 1610, the Vatican sent Antonio back to Korea as a missionary, but he was not allowed in and returned to Italy. He later married an Italian girl and some of his descendents still live in Italy. Father Carletti's Korean slaves were probably the first Koreans to be baptized into the Catholic faith outside Korea. (Lee Hae Gang, 2000; Kim Andrew, 2000)
Sometime before 1653, a Spanish priest and three Dutchmen had arrived in Korea, and the three Dutchmen were still alive in Korea in 1653. One of them was Jan Janse Weltevree from De Rijp, Spain. Not much is known about these men.
In 1592, Japan's Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded Korea. One of his generals, Konishi Yukinaga (Roman name, Augustin Arimandono), a devout Roman Catholic, was accompanied by a Portuguese Jesuit priest, Gregorio de Céspedes (1550-1611). Father Gregorio arrived in Korea on December 27, 1593 and left in April 1594. He is believed to be the first white-man to set foot on the Korean peninsula.
Another Jesuit priest, Francesco Carletti, who was in Japan at the time of Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, stated in a letter home that some 300,000 Koreans were taken to Japan as prisoners of war and sold off as slaves.
Father Carletti bought five of the Korean slaves - dirt-cheap. Later, his Korean slaves became Christian converts, and one of them, Antonio Correa (1578?-1626), went to Holland with Father Carletti and became the first Korean to live in Europe. In about 1610, the Vatican sent Antonio back to Korea as a missionary, but he was not allowed in and returned to Italy. He later married an Italian girl and some of his descendents still live in Italy. Father Carletti's Korean slaves were probably the first Koreans to be baptized into the Catholic faith outside Korea. (Lee Hae Gang, 2000; Kim Andrew, 2000)
Sometime before 1653, a Spanish priest and three Dutchmen had arrived in Korea, and the three Dutchmen were still alive in Korea in 1653. One of them was Jan Janse Weltevree from De Rijp, Spain. Not much is known about these men.
A Dutch trading ship, Sperwer (Sparrowhawk), on its way to Nagasaki, Japan, ran aground on the Cheju Island in August 1653. From the 64 persons on board, 36 survived the wreck. The Dutch sailors were treated well by the Cheju residents for a few days and then were sent to Seoul for interrogation. The Chosun government refused to let the Dutchmen leave the country fearing that they knew too much about Korea. In due course of time, twenty of the 36 survivors died from malnutrition and diseases. Eventually, eight of the survivors managed to escape to Japan in September 1666.
Hendrick Hamel, one of the lucky escapees, returned to Holland and published a detailed account of his captivity in Korea. His book,Journal van de Ongeluckige Voyage van 't Jacht de Sperwer (The journal of the unfortunate voyage of the Sperwer), was published in 1668. Hamel was the first Westerner to write about Korea from first-hand knowledge. (Lee Hae Gang, 2000)
The ginseng 'trade war' that began in the 1730s was the first recorded contact between Korea and the people of North America. (The United States of America came into being much later in 1776.) Ginseng roots from Canada and the American colonies began to flood the Chinese markets and put an end to the centuries-old Korean monopoly of ginseng in China. It is estimated that Korean ginseng used to earn as much as "3 tons of silver" a year from China before the Canadian and American ginseng arrived in China.
For over 10,000 years, Ginseng has been popular among Asians and the Native Americans for its medicinal effects. Oriental medical doctors and Indian medicine-men have been using ginseng roots to cure many illnesses. Some historians believe that the Native Americans brought the ginseng know-how from Asia during the last Ice Age. It is likely that the plant was initially used for food because of its meaty root that keeps on growing year after year. The ginseng root is unusually large in comparison to the plant. It has been established that ginseng roots contain chemicals that affect body functions in positive ways. Although ginseng plants grow in Manchuria, Siberia and elsewhere, the Korean ginseng is the most valued for its extraordinary medicinal effects. (Korean Ginseng, 2003)
Photo: Ginseng has been used and prized as a medicinal herb for more than 5,000 years in China and Korea. Ginseng plants grow naturally in Manchuria, Korea, and parts of North America. The Native American 'medicine men' have known of the medicinal value of the plants. (Korean Ginseng, 2003)
By the third century AD, ginseng became one of the main export products of Korea. By the 1600s, wild ginseng was all but wiped out in Korea due to over-harvesting, and Korea could no longer meet the ever-growing demand for Korean ginseng in China. The Koreans successfully developed ways to cultivate ginseng, and soon, cultivated Korean ginseng flooded the Chinese markets. Ginseng cultivation was centered at Kaesung and the government had monopoly of ginseng exports.
Unfortunately for Korea, it turns out that ginseng plants grow naturally in North America and almost every Indian tribe of North America has been using ginseng in the same manner as the Asians have been using. For example, it is well known that the Cherokees, who call ginseng roots "the little man", use them for colic, convulsions, dysentery, and headaches. Other tribes use American ginseng roots for easing digestion, increasing appetite and easing female menstrual problems. Other Indian curative uses are for exhaustion, breathlessness, croup, and preventing the wounded from dying of shock. (Waters, 2003)
Photo: Panax ginseng C A Meyer root - the more shaped like a human, the more value, and also, the older, the more value. Ginseng plants more than 100 years old have been found. (Korean Ginseng, 2003)
Although ginseng has been popular in Asia for over 5,000 years, the Westerners did not learn about it until about 1670 when Hendrick Hammel published a book about his years of captivity in 'Coree'. Hammel wrote of ginseng:
"In those areas the people live from barley and millet, because rice can't grow there. Cotton grows there neither, so it had to be supplied from the south. The ordinary man in these areas is most of the time shabbily dressed in hemp, linen or hides. But in these areas one can also find the ginseng plant. The root of this plant is being used to pay the tribute to the Tartarians. This stuff is furthermore much exported to China and Japan." (As cited in Lee Hae Gang, 2000)
In 1709, French Jesuit priest, Father Petrus Jartoux, in China read about the lucrative ginseng trade and wrote a letter to his colleague Father Lafitau in St Louise, Canada, suggesting that ginseng plants might be found in America.
Hendrick Hamel, one of the lucky escapees, returned to Holland and published a detailed account of his captivity in Korea. His book,Journal van de Ongeluckige Voyage van 't Jacht de Sperwer (The journal of the unfortunate voyage of the Sperwer), was published in 1668. Hamel was the first Westerner to write about Korea from first-hand knowledge. (Lee Hae Gang, 2000)
The ginseng 'trade war' that began in the 1730s was the first recorded contact between Korea and the people of North America. (The United States of America came into being much later in 1776.) Ginseng roots from Canada and the American colonies began to flood the Chinese markets and put an end to the centuries-old Korean monopoly of ginseng in China. It is estimated that Korean ginseng used to earn as much as "3 tons of silver" a year from China before the Canadian and American ginseng arrived in China.
For over 10,000 years, Ginseng has been popular among Asians and the Native Americans for its medicinal effects. Oriental medical doctors and Indian medicine-men have been using ginseng roots to cure many illnesses. Some historians believe that the Native Americans brought the ginseng know-how from Asia during the last Ice Age. It is likely that the plant was initially used for food because of its meaty root that keeps on growing year after year. The ginseng root is unusually large in comparison to the plant. It has been established that ginseng roots contain chemicals that affect body functions in positive ways. Although ginseng plants grow in Manchuria, Siberia and elsewhere, the Korean ginseng is the most valued for its extraordinary medicinal effects. (Korean Ginseng, 2003)
Photo: Ginseng has been used and prized as a medicinal herb for more than 5,000 years in China and Korea. Ginseng plants grow naturally in Manchuria, Korea, and parts of North America. The Native American 'medicine men' have known of the medicinal value of the plants. (Korean Ginseng, 2003)
By the third century AD, ginseng became one of the main export products of Korea. By the 1600s, wild ginseng was all but wiped out in Korea due to over-harvesting, and Korea could no longer meet the ever-growing demand for Korean ginseng in China. The Koreans successfully developed ways to cultivate ginseng, and soon, cultivated Korean ginseng flooded the Chinese markets. Ginseng cultivation was centered at Kaesung and the government had monopoly of ginseng exports.
Unfortunately for Korea, it turns out that ginseng plants grow naturally in North America and almost every Indian tribe of North America has been using ginseng in the same manner as the Asians have been using. For example, it is well known that the Cherokees, who call ginseng roots "the little man", use them for colic, convulsions, dysentery, and headaches. Other tribes use American ginseng roots for easing digestion, increasing appetite and easing female menstrual problems. Other Indian curative uses are for exhaustion, breathlessness, croup, and preventing the wounded from dying of shock. (Waters, 2003)
Photo: Panax ginseng C A Meyer root - the more shaped like a human, the more value, and also, the older, the more value. Ginseng plants more than 100 years old have been found. (Korean Ginseng, 2003)
Although ginseng has been popular in Asia for over 5,000 years, the Westerners did not learn about it until about 1670 when Hendrick Hammel published a book about his years of captivity in 'Coree'. Hammel wrote of ginseng:
"In those areas the people live from barley and millet, because rice can't grow there. Cotton grows there neither, so it had to be supplied from the south. The ordinary man in these areas is most of the time shabbily dressed in hemp, linen or hides. But in these areas one can also find the ginseng plant. The root of this plant is being used to pay the tribute to the Tartarians. This stuff is furthermore much exported to China and Japan." (As cited in Lee Hae Gang, 2000)
In 1709, French Jesuit priest, Father Petrus Jartoux, in China read about the lucrative ginseng trade and wrote a letter to his colleague Father Lafitau in St Louise, Canada, suggesting that ginseng plants might be found in America.
After receiving the letter in 1714, Father Lafitau began looking for ginseng. The good Father knew that the Native Americans used the plant and hired some Iroquois Indians to assist in his search. Sure enough, Father Lafitau discovered ginseng in Canada in 1716. (Talk-Koo Yun; Trade and Environmental Database)Panax quinquefolius L.) is one of three true ginseng plants from the Araliaceae family, and that Ontario, Quebec, and Wisconsin are natural habitants of the plant. Father Lafitau's discovery led to a boom in ginseng trade in Montreal, Canada.
Some bright French-Canadian fur traders saw the enormous potential for profits in exporting Canadian ginseng to China.
Some bright French-Canadian fur traders saw the enormous potential for profits in exporting Canadian ginseng to China.
According to Waters (2003), the traders paid the ginseng collectors 25 cents per pound and then sold the roots for $5 per pound in China, and by 1752, the traders were making as much as $100,000 per shipment of ginseng - it should be noted that one US$ in 1750 was worth about US$25 today. (Sahr, 2003) But the ginseng windfall did not last long, for, in their haste to cash in on this newly found "woodland nuggets of gold", the plant was over-harvested and soon became rare. Some greedy traders gathered poorer and poorer roots and then dried them in ovens, instead of drying them slowly in natural sunlight. Soon the Chinese patrons stopped buying Canadian ginseng roots, and the Canadian ginseng trade fell to less $6,500 by 1754. (Waters, 2003)
With the collapse of the Canadian ginseng trade, ginseng traders turned to the American colonies, and the colonies were more than eager to take over the lucrative ginseng trade with China. Soon brisk ginseng harvesting and exports began in America. One of the early American ginseng traders was John Jacob Astor, who made a profit of $55,000 in his first shipment. It is believed that George Washington himself was in the ginseng business and that the American Revolutionary War of 1775-1783 was largely financed with ginseng money.
Colonel Daniel Boone jumped on the ginseng bonanza, too. Colonel Boone hired Native Americans to collect wild ginseng roots in the Appalachian Mountains of Kentucky. In 1788, his first shipment of 12 tons of ginseng roots was lost when the barge carrying it capsized in the Ohio Rover. Undaunted, Colonel Boon was able to harvest more roots and shipped them safely to China in the following year. Contrary to the common belief, the Boone family fortune was made from ginseng, not from selling animal skins. (Waters, 2003).
On February 22, 1784, the Empress of China left New York Harbor bound for China loaded with American ginseng roots. She returned loaded with Chinese tealeaves. Her investors made as much as 30% profits. It was a win-win two-way trade. Philadelphia soon became the primary port of export for ginseng roots to the Orient. (Harrison et al.) Fontenoyan (1997) writes:
"The sole previous American venture, by the Empress of China, had taken out a mixed cargo including thirty tons of Appalachian ginseng, fifty tons of cordage, and thirty tons of lead, plus planks, cloth, and assorted wines and spirits. This had sold for just over $270,000; the ginseng alone accounted for $240,000. In addition, $20,000 in silver dollars had been shipped in casks to be used for further purchases."
Ginseng was one of the earliest marketable herbs to be harvested in America and one of Minnesota's first major exports. In 1860, more than 120 tons of dried ginseng roots were shipped from Minnesota to China. The ginseng trade continued to flourish until the late 1800's. By 1862, ginseng exports exceeded 300 tons per year. Dried wild ginseng roots fetched as much as $300 per pound in today's dollars and some aged ginseng roots went for as much as $550 per pound. (Agri-Food Trade Service)
The sudden influx of ginseng roots from Canada and the American colonies came as a complete shock to the Korean ginseng growers and traders. Korea's 1,000-year ginseng monopoly in China came to an abrupt end, and American ginseng dealers became dominant in the ginseng markets of Beijing and Canton in China. The American ginseng traders brought back Chinese tea to America for handsome profits.
By mid-1860, wild ginseng plants in America became almost extinct and could not support the thriving ginseng trade with China, whereupon, the American ginseng traders "stole" the art of cultivating ginseng from Korea. A number of Korean ginseng growers were brought to the United States for the first Korea-America technology transfer, and it is believed that the Korean ginseng growers were the first Koreans to set foot on America.
Photo: A Kaesung ginseng farm. Ginseng cultivation began in the 1600s in Korea centered at Kaesung. The "Kaesung" ginseng is deemed the best in the world even today. ("Korean History", 2003)
The first attempts at cultivation were met with failure, however, in a few years, cultivated ginseng roots from America began to flood the Chinese markets. (Scott Harris)
It has been alleged that some unscrupulous Korean ginseng growers had imported cultivated ginseng roots from America and then sold them labeled 'Made in Chosun’ to the Chinese. Today, there exists a large market for ginseng in America. Ginseng is popular not only with Asian-Americans, but also with a growing number of non-Asian Americans as well. The irony is that some of the 'Korean ginseng roots' sold in America are in fact Chinese or Siberian ginseng roots, which are not as medicinal as the Korean ginseng roots are.
Thanks to the ginseng trade war, Korea became aware of America and America began to cast hungry glances at the untapped markets of Korea. Ginseng brought Korea and America together. The ginseng competition became an important factor for the US-Chosun armed conflicts of 1866 and of 1871, which led to the 1882 US-Chosun Chemulpo Treaty of Amity and Trade. (Griffis, 1894). In addition to the ginseng growers and merchants, among the early Koreans in America were a handful of Korean Catholics who managed to escape the mass execution of the Catholics in Korea.
Today, South Korea is one of the most Christianized nations of the world. Of the 50 million people of South Korea, more than ten million are Protestants and three million are Roman Catholics. This is remarkable in light of the fact that there were no known Christians in Korea before 1770, when Chon Du-won, a Chosun diplomat in China, brought back a copy of Father Matteo Ricci's book -The True Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven. A small group of Korean reformists, calling themselves Shilhak, found the Catholic theology attractive and wanted to learn more about it. They believed that the Catholic theology might be the way to break out of the suffocating feudalism of the Chosun Kingdom. (Andrew Kim, 2000)
In 1783, Shilhak sent Yi Sung-Hun, a son of a Chosen diplomat, to China, on a mission to learn more about the Catholic religion. Yi became the first baptized Korean Catholic - not counting the Korean converts in Japan. He was baptized in Beijing by French Catholic priests, who were ecstatic about their first Korean convert. Yi was sent back to Korea in 1784 with evangelical materials. Some of theShilrak reformists became Catholic converts and began to hold religious services on their own without the guidance of an ordained priest. (Andrew Kim, 2000)
The 1801 Pogrom
In 1794, the Roman Catholic Church of China sent a Chinese priest, Ju Un-mo, to Korea. He entered Korea illegally on December 23 and reached a hiding place in Seoul. He was guided and sheltered by Korean Catholics. The 'native' Korean Catholic church under Father Ju grew rapidly to more than ten thousands by the end of 1801. However, the phenomenal growth of this white-man's religion in the land of Confucius came to a sudden bloody end. King Chongjo, who was tolerant of the Catholics, died in 1800, and King Sunjo inherited the throne. Since he was a minor at the time, his mother became the Queen Regent and ran the country on his behalf. She was dead against any foreign religion and declared that the Korean Catholics were traitors and should be punished as such.
The Chosun secret police was hot on Father Ju's trail and executed his Korean helpers one after another. Father Ju managed to evade the police for six years, but in May 1801, his luck ran out, and he was caught and executed. After Father Ju's execution, a Korean Catholic, Hwang Sa Young attempted to send an SOS to the Catholic Bishop in Beijing. Hwang wrote his petition on October 29, 1801, while hiding out in a cave. He wrote out his petition in tiny Chinese characters on two sheets of silk, known today as the Hwang White Paper.
Hwang chronicled the death of Father Ju and other Catholic martyrs in Korea, and begged Rome to do something quick to help the Korean Catholics. His "white paper" had four main points: (Oh Ki-sun, 2003)
Chosun is economically bankrupt and powerless, and we wish to accept the Gospel with the help of the Western nations and obtain funds to rescue our people.Chosun is a client-state of China and the Emperor of China is the effective ruler of Chosun. Therefore, Rome should ask the Emperor's permission to send priests to Korea.The Chosun royal court is weak and about to fall, and so, Chosun should become part of China, and a member of China's royal family should be appointed to rule over Korea. The Korean people have enjoyed peace for over 500 years and so know nothing about waging war. A crusader army of several hundred warships and 50 to 60 thousands troops should occupy Korea and make evangelical missions safe and easy in Korea.
Photo: The Hwang White Paper. On the right is a portion of the paper magnified about five times. Hwang, a trained scriber, wrote in tiny Chinese characters as shown on the left.
Chosun police arrested Hwang’s emissary with the white paper. Hwang's request for foreign troops to rule over Korea added much fuel to the anti-Catholic pogrom, and Hwang, the first Korean convert Lee Sung Hun, and about three hundreds other Catholic converts were put to death. Decades later, the Hwang White Paper was handed to the Catholic Church of Korea, which sent it to Rome. Today, it is preserved at the Papal Museum of Nationalities in Rome (Curia Romana). (Sun-jo, 2003; Oh Ki-sun, 2003)
The 1839 Pogrom and French Reprisals
In 1831, another Chinese priest, Father Liu Fangchi, entered Korea secretly. Five years later, M. Maubant, a French Catholic, smuggled himself into Korea from Manchuria. Father Chastan and a French bishop who called himself “Lord de Capse” followed him. Two Korean Catholics were officially ordained priests by the French bishop. All these activities were done covertly because the Catholic Church was still forbidden in Chosun. In 1839, the Korean King got wind of the covert activities and ordered the extermination of the Catholic Church in Korea once for all. Consequently, over two hundred Catholics, including the French bishop, two French priests, and numerous Korean church leaders, were executed. (Andrew Kim, 2000; Speer, 1872)
France was enraged over the killing of its citizens in Korea and dispatched a naval task force to punish Korea in 1847 only to be frustrated by a "divine intervention" when two of its warships sank:
"It is one of the strange combinations of Divine Providence in human affairs that the French vessels of war, La Victoriense and La Gloire, which were so suddenly sunk in the calm open sea, on their way to chastise the Coreans in 1847, were two which had just been engaged in the bombardment of the principal port of Cochin-China, the burning of many native vessels, and the slaughter of thirteen hundred of the helpless people." (Speer, 1872)
On March 11, 1866, Father Simon Francois Berneux, a French missionary who had been preaching the Gospel in Korea illegally, was arrested. He and about 8,000 of his Korean converts were put to death. Three French missionaries, including Father Felix-Clair Ridel, managed to escape to China and told a French diplomat, Henri de Bellonet, about the "massacre" going on in Corea. On July 13, 1866, M. Bellonet sent an urgent dispatch to Admiral Roze: "In receiving the news of the general massacre of Christians and missionaries in Corea, you have no doubt thought like myself that the slightest delay in the punishment of this bloody outrage could result in serious endangerment to the 500 missionaries preaching in China." (Sterner, 2003)
Bellonet sent another dispatch to the French foreign minister in Paris, who in turn, sent a dispatch to the American consul in Beijing, requesting a joint French-American expedition to punish the Coreans. However, the American consul refused to go along. America was weary of starting another war so soon after the bloody American Civil War that ended in 1865. As of that time, the Coreans had harmed no Americans, and America had no reason to stick its neck out for a handful of French Catholics, who were killed for illegal activities in Corea.
A French task force led by Admiral Roze arrived at the Han River estuary in 1866. Roze sent messengers to Seoul demanding compensation for the murder of the nine French Catholics. However, the Seoul court ignored the French demand. In retaliation, the French forces occupied Kanghwa-do and destroyed public properties of the island, after which the French fleet advanced toward Seoul. A Chosun army led by Gen. Han Sung Gun and Gen Yang Hyung Soo defeated the French in a series of savage battles and Roze was forced to flee. For this humiliating defeat, the French Government reprimanded Roze. (Sterner, 2003)
Grave-Robbing in the Name of God
Two decades later in 1867, the French Catholic Church made another attempt to revenge the Korean King for the murder of the nine Frenchmen in Korea. Father Feron heard from his Korean converts that the grave of the current Korean king’s grandfather contained much gold and gems. In addition to the treasures, Feron thought that he could dig up the royal remains and hold them to exact redress from the Korean king for the murder of the Frenchmen. Feron enlisted Earnest Oppert, a German adventurer, and F. H. Jenkins, an American businessman. Jenkins financed the adventure for a lion's share of the treasures expected. The grave robbers charted the armed steamer China and hired 8 Europeans, 100 Chinese and 21 Malay pirates in addition to the ship's regular crew.
On April 30. 1867, the steamer China with Father Feron and his 'Army of God' left Shanghai for Nagasaki, where arms were purchased for the 'army', and on May 9th, Feron's army arrived at the Han River estuary, where they were met by Korean Catholics, who guided the grave robbers to the royal burial ground. They dug down deep and reached a massive sarcophagus, but they were unable to lift the heavy stone lid. By this time, a large crowd of local residents gathered around them and began to attack, and the 'Army of God' was forced to retreat without taking any 'loots'. They returned to Shanghai empty-handed. Jenkins and his American investors lost their venture money.
The Occidental community of Shanghai was deeply upset by this grotesque barbaric act. Oppert left for Germany, where he was jailed for one year. A trial court presided over by George F. Seward, the American Consul-General of Shanghai, cleared Jenkins of any wrongdoing. The French refused to prosecute Father Feron and the Catholic Church of Rome claimed it did not know any 'Father Feron', who went on "spreading the Gospel" in China. (Lee Wha Rang, 2000; Williams, 1880)
Enraged by the French invasion and Father Feron's grave robbery in the name of God, the Chosun court retaliated by killing more Catholics. During the next three years, more than ten thousands Catholics and anyone related to the Church were executed. Tens of thousands more fled to the mountains, many of whom died from exposure and hunger. The King's determination to keep out foreign devils and their Korean supporters was redoubled. (Hulber, 1898) The persecution of the Catholics continued unabated until the 1882 US-Chosun Chemulpo Treaty that allowed American missionaries to work in Korea.In the year 1613 one `Coree' was kidnapped from the Cape by a homeward-bound Indiaman (Hector, Captain Towerson) and carried back to London. There, although lodged in Sir Thomas's own house, cherished and adorned with a suit of brazen armour, he was unhappy: `for when he had learned a little of our language he would daily lie upon the ground and cry very often thus in broken English, "Coree go home, Souldania go, home go.'"annexation of Portugal by Spain in 1580 –Seats on the board of directors were allotted proportionately; the `Heeren majores in patria,' commonly known as the Heeren XVII, divided themselves as to eight from Amsterdam and four from Zeeland, the remaining five members being shared by the smaller provinces. Russian corn and Scandinavian timber, hemp and tar being carried south, but it was soon extended to the Mediterranean, previously dominated by the Genoese and Venetians; a Dutch consulate was established in Constantinople, and a Directorate of Mediterranean Trade regulated the merchants. Commercial organization on an unprecedented scale was initiated; Amsterdam merchants not only made a market in all these commodities, but perfected banking and exchange services that served not only Dutch trade, and soon replaced the Hanseatic and Lombard cities as bankers to Europe.Dutch seized the initiative at sea. That dubious collection of patriots and pirates the 'Sea Beggars' defied the mighty Spanish forces, and after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 the Dutch were able to build a battle fleet. While the land war against Spain continued its damaging course the new Dutch squadrons, with astonishing rapidity, became capable of carrying the war into Spain itself; the battle of Gibraltar in 1607 left the Spanish fleet annihilated in its own harbour by the Dutch Admiral Heemskerk.
Behind such a shield Dutch commerce expanded even under the constraints imposed by war. The previous centre of trade, Antwerp, had been left impoverished in the rump of the Spanish Netherlands. From the new commercial capital, Amsterdam, the largest carrying trade in the world developed.
Britain was at that time unable to assert much power in the Indies, where in 1623 the Dutch had underlined their hegemony there by executing a number of English merchants who had set up a competitive enterprise at Amboina; the English government agreed a truce, but popular feeling ran high and was waiting for the moment of revenge. This was many years coming – only in the 1650s did Cromwell's navy begin to make English sea-power felt – and in the meantime the newly established United Provinces of the Netherlands was unchallenged as the principal heir to the Portuguese trading empire in the East.
This collection of fiercely independent and particularist towns and provinces had been subjected to twenty years of oppression by their nominal overlord, the King of Spain. Philip II, who would have made a competent office manager had it not been for his shiftiness, but was a miserable failure as a monarch, had attempted to force his northern possessions back into the fold of Roman Catholicism. Although it was to be another sixty years before the attempt was finally abandoned, by 1585 Spanish persecution had forged an unruly and precarious alliance of seven of the fifteen provinces into a nation. The remaining southern states, approximating to the present-day Belgium, Luxembourg and French Flanders, remained Catholic and subjected, but the northern provinces – those now forming the Kingdom of the Netherlands, popularly known, then as now, by the name of its largest constituent, Holland – developed into an enthusiastically Protestant and mercantile nation.
In 1619 another East India Company commander, Andrew Shilling, formally took possession of the Table Bay, building `King James His Mount' and leaving a small flag with `the natives, which they carefully kept'. ShilSir Thomas Roe, a great explorer, stopped at the Cape in 1615 on his way to the court of the Emperor Jehangir; he was also conveying several `Japanzas' back to their native land. Medieval Arab and Jewish scientists had already produced navigational instruments, the astrolabe and cross-staff being the most important. With these, adapted for use at sea, together with the magnetic compass, in use since the beginning of the fourteenth century, long ocean voyages, and the accurate delineation of newly discovered territories, became feasible.
These techniques were little different from those which had been employed by Chinese mariners for many centuries. The Chinese who visited East Africa at the same time that the Portuguese were feeling their way down the west coast did so in ships at least as well equipped and much larger than those of the Europeans; and the Arab dhows that made the passages to India and even as far as the South China Sea were able, seaworthy vessels. But the caravels and their successors, the carracks, had one decisive advantage, which goes far to explain how Europeans were able to establish extensive empires. The strong and deep hulls of their ships were able to accommodate powerful batteries of cannon: the Regent, built for Henry VII of England in 1495, mounted 225 guns. Against the forces of the great Ottoman, Moghul and Chinese empires European nations could deploy only handfuls of soldiers, but with the naval power at their disposal they could defend any trading posts they might be able to establish in the Indies, and control all maritime trade routes.
4 November 1497, da Gama made his landfall in St Helena Bay, seventy miles north of the future Cape Town, it was after ninety-three days and a distance of 3,770 miles out of sight of land. There he found more Khoikhoi, `swarthy' men who `eat only sea-wolves and whales', whose `arms are staff of wild olives tipped with fire-hardened horns', and whose dogs barked exactly as did those in Portugal. Eventually, in the Treaty of Tordesillas, King João got what he wanted: a boundary between Spain and Portugal running north to south at a distance of 370 leagues (about 1175 miles) west of the Azores, an arrangement that gave to Portugal all Africa, India and China, as well as the yet-to-be-identified country of Brazil. Pope Alexander VI Borgia attempted to settle things between Spain and Portugal in 1493, but King João was not satisfied with the adjudication; the Pope, being a keen family man, with the interests of his daughter Lucrezia and his son Cesare much at heart, had allowed himself to be too openly bribed by Spain.In 1396 the Turks had – with, it might be noted, the enthusiastic assistance of the Serbs – massacred a crusading army at Nicopolis on the Danube. Only Constantinople itself was holding out, and that precariously. Even if the Ottoman empire allowed the precious spices and silks from India and China to pass through to Western Europe, high duties were likely to be added to the already considerable costs of caravan transport.
56중 국의조국중 #14가 조선족(3동부: 지린성, 헤이룽장성, 랴오닝성) 고주몽. 한인의역사.일본 제국 패망 후인 1945년 11월 8일 이후 한글학자들은 한글만 쓰기 운동을 벌였다. 그 결과로, 해방 직후의 초·중등 교과서에는 한글만 사용되었으며, 필요시 괄호(도림) 안에 한자가 표시되었다. 단, 중학교에서는 한문교육을 실시하여 중국과의 교류, 고전(古典)에의 접근을 고려하였다. 공문서에는 한글이 전용되었다.With the collapse of the Canadian ginseng trade, ginseng traders turned to the American colonies, and the colonies were more than eager to take over the lucrative ginseng trade with China. Soon brisk ginseng harvesting and exports began in America. One of the early American ginseng traders was John Jacob Astor, who made a profit of $55,000 in his first shipment. It is believed that George Washington himself was in the ginseng business and that the American Revolutionary War of 1775-1783 was largely financed with ginseng money.
Colonel Daniel Boone jumped on the ginseng bonanza, too. Colonel Boone hired Native Americans to collect wild ginseng roots in the Appalachian Mountains of Kentucky. In 1788, his first shipment of 12 tons of ginseng roots was lost when the barge carrying it capsized in the Ohio Rover. Undaunted, Colonel Boon was able to harvest more roots and shipped them safely to China in the following year. Contrary to the common belief, the Boone family fortune was made from ginseng, not from selling animal skins. (Waters, 2003).
On February 22, 1784, the Empress of China left New York Harbor bound for China loaded with American ginseng roots. She returned loaded with Chinese tealeaves. Her investors made as much as 30% profits. It was a win-win two-way trade. Philadelphia soon became the primary port of export for ginseng roots to the Orient. (Harrison et al.) Fontenoyan (1997) writes:
"The sole previous American venture, by the Empress of China, had taken out a mixed cargo including thirty tons of Appalachian ginseng, fifty tons of cordage, and thirty tons of lead, plus planks, cloth, and assorted wines and spirits. This had sold for just over $270,000; the ginseng alone accounted for $240,000. In addition, $20,000 in silver dollars had been shipped in casks to be used for further purchases."
Ginseng was one of the earliest marketable herbs to be harvested in America and one of Minnesota's first major exports. In 1860, more than 120 tons of dried ginseng roots were shipped from Minnesota to China. The ginseng trade continued to flourish until the late 1800's. By 1862, ginseng exports exceeded 300 tons per year. Dried wild ginseng roots fetched as much as $300 per pound in today's dollars and some aged ginseng roots went for as much as $550 per pound. (Agri-Food Trade Service)
The sudden influx of ginseng roots from Canada and the American colonies came as a complete shock to the Korean ginseng growers and traders. Korea's 1,000-year ginseng monopoly in China came to an abrupt end, and American ginseng dealers became dominant in the ginseng markets of Beijing and Canton in China. The American ginseng traders brought back Chinese tea to America for handsome profits.
By mid-1860, wild ginseng plants in America became almost extinct and could not support the thriving ginseng trade with China, whereupon, the American ginseng traders "stole" the art of cultivating ginseng from Korea. A number of Korean ginseng growers were brought to the United States for the first Korea-America technology transfer, and it is believed that the Korean ginseng growers were the first Koreans to set foot on America.
Photo: A Kaesung ginseng farm. Ginseng cultivation began in the 1600s in Korea centered at Kaesung. The "Kaesung" ginseng is deemed the best in the world even today. ("Korean History", 2003)
The first attempts at cultivation were met with failure, however, in a few years, cultivated ginseng roots from America began to flood the Chinese markets. (Scott Harris)
It has been alleged that some unscrupulous Korean ginseng growers had imported cultivated ginseng roots from America and then sold them labeled 'Made in Chosun’ to the Chinese. Today, there exists a large market for ginseng in America. Ginseng is popular not only with Asian-Americans, but also with a growing number of non-Asian Americans as well. The irony is that some of the 'Korean ginseng roots' sold in America are in fact Chinese or Siberian ginseng roots, which are not as medicinal as the Korean ginseng roots are.
Thanks to the ginseng trade war, Korea became aware of America and America began to cast hungry glances at the untapped markets of Korea. Ginseng brought Korea and America together. The ginseng competition became an important factor for the US-Chosun armed conflicts of 1866 and of 1871, which led to the 1882 US-Chosun Chemulpo Treaty of Amity and Trade. (Griffis, 1894). In addition to the ginseng growers and merchants, among the early Koreans in America were a handful of Korean Catholics who managed to escape the mass execution of the Catholics in Korea.
Today, South Korea is one of the most Christianized nations of the world. Of the 50 million people of South Korea, more than ten million are Protestants and three million are Roman Catholics. This is remarkable in light of the fact that there were no known Christians in Korea before 1770, when Chon Du-won, a Chosun diplomat in China, brought back a copy of Father Matteo Ricci's book -The True Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven. A small group of Korean reformists, calling themselves Shilhak, found the Catholic theology attractive and wanted to learn more about it. They believed that the Catholic theology might be the way to break out of the suffocating feudalism of the Chosun Kingdom. (Andrew Kim, 2000)
In 1783, Shilhak sent Yi Sung-Hun, a son of a Chosen diplomat, to China, on a mission to learn more about the Catholic religion. Yi became the first baptized Korean Catholic - not counting the Korean converts in Japan. He was baptized in Beijing by French Catholic priests, who were ecstatic about their first Korean convert. Yi was sent back to Korea in 1784 with evangelical materials. Some of theShilrak reformists became Catholic converts and began to hold religious services on their own without the guidance of an ordained priest. (Andrew Kim, 2000)
The 1801 Pogrom
In 1794, the Roman Catholic Church of China sent a Chinese priest, Ju Un-mo, to Korea. He entered Korea illegally on December 23 and reached a hiding place in Seoul. He was guided and sheltered by Korean Catholics. The 'native' Korean Catholic church under Father Ju grew rapidly to more than ten thousands by the end of 1801. However, the phenomenal growth of this white-man's religion in the land of Confucius came to a sudden bloody end. King Chongjo, who was tolerant of the Catholics, died in 1800, and King Sunjo inherited the throne. Since he was a minor at the time, his mother became the Queen Regent and ran the country on his behalf. She was dead against any foreign religion and declared that the Korean Catholics were traitors and should be punished as such.
The Chosun secret police was hot on Father Ju's trail and executed his Korean helpers one after another. Father Ju managed to evade the police for six years, but in May 1801, his luck ran out, and he was caught and executed. After Father Ju's execution, a Korean Catholic, Hwang Sa Young attempted to send an SOS to the Catholic Bishop in Beijing. Hwang wrote his petition on October 29, 1801, while hiding out in a cave. He wrote out his petition in tiny Chinese characters on two sheets of silk, known today as the Hwang White Paper.
Hwang chronicled the death of Father Ju and other Catholic martyrs in Korea, and begged Rome to do something quick to help the Korean Catholics. His "white paper" had four main points: (Oh Ki-sun, 2003)
Chosun is economically bankrupt and powerless, and we wish to accept the Gospel with the help of the Western nations and obtain funds to rescue our people.Chosun is a client-state of China and the Emperor of China is the effective ruler of Chosun. Therefore, Rome should ask the Emperor's permission to send priests to Korea.The Chosun royal court is weak and about to fall, and so, Chosun should become part of China, and a member of China's royal family should be appointed to rule over Korea. The Korean people have enjoyed peace for over 500 years and so know nothing about waging war. A crusader army of several hundred warships and 50 to 60 thousands troops should occupy Korea and make evangelical missions safe and easy in Korea.
Photo: The Hwang White Paper. On the right is a portion of the paper magnified about five times. Hwang, a trained scriber, wrote in tiny Chinese characters as shown on the left.
Chosun police arrested Hwang’s emissary with the white paper. Hwang's request for foreign troops to rule over Korea added much fuel to the anti-Catholic pogrom, and Hwang, the first Korean convert Lee Sung Hun, and about three hundreds other Catholic converts were put to death. Decades later, the Hwang White Paper was handed to the Catholic Church of Korea, which sent it to Rome. Today, it is preserved at the Papal Museum of Nationalities in Rome (Curia Romana). (Sun-jo, 2003; Oh Ki-sun, 2003)
The 1839 Pogrom and French Reprisals
In 1831, another Chinese priest, Father Liu Fangchi, entered Korea secretly. Five years later, M. Maubant, a French Catholic, smuggled himself into Korea from Manchuria. Father Chastan and a French bishop who called himself “Lord de Capse” followed him. Two Korean Catholics were officially ordained priests by the French bishop. All these activities were done covertly because the Catholic Church was still forbidden in Chosun. In 1839, the Korean King got wind of the covert activities and ordered the extermination of the Catholic Church in Korea once for all. Consequently, over two hundred Catholics, including the French bishop, two French priests, and numerous Korean church leaders, were executed. (Andrew Kim, 2000; Speer, 1872)
France was enraged over the killing of its citizens in Korea and dispatched a naval task force to punish Korea in 1847 only to be frustrated by a "divine intervention" when two of its warships sank:
"It is one of the strange combinations of Divine Providence in human affairs that the French vessels of war, La Victoriense and La Gloire, which were so suddenly sunk in the calm open sea, on their way to chastise the Coreans in 1847, were two which had just been engaged in the bombardment of the principal port of Cochin-China, the burning of many native vessels, and the slaughter of thirteen hundred of the helpless people." (Speer, 1872)
On March 11, 1866, Father Simon Francois Berneux, a French missionary who had been preaching the Gospel in Korea illegally, was arrested. He and about 8,000 of his Korean converts were put to death. Three French missionaries, including Father Felix-Clair Ridel, managed to escape to China and told a French diplomat, Henri de Bellonet, about the "massacre" going on in Corea. On July 13, 1866, M. Bellonet sent an urgent dispatch to Admiral Roze: "In receiving the news of the general massacre of Christians and missionaries in Corea, you have no doubt thought like myself that the slightest delay in the punishment of this bloody outrage could result in serious endangerment to the 500 missionaries preaching in China." (Sterner, 2003)
Bellonet sent another dispatch to the French foreign minister in Paris, who in turn, sent a dispatch to the American consul in Beijing, requesting a joint French-American expedition to punish the Coreans. However, the American consul refused to go along. America was weary of starting another war so soon after the bloody American Civil War that ended in 1865. As of that time, the Coreans had harmed no Americans, and America had no reason to stick its neck out for a handful of French Catholics, who were killed for illegal activities in Corea.
A French task force led by Admiral Roze arrived at the Han River estuary in 1866. Roze sent messengers to Seoul demanding compensation for the murder of the nine French Catholics. However, the Seoul court ignored the French demand. In retaliation, the French forces occupied Kanghwa-do and destroyed public properties of the island, after which the French fleet advanced toward Seoul. A Chosun army led by Gen. Han Sung Gun and Gen Yang Hyung Soo defeated the French in a series of savage battles and Roze was forced to flee. For this humiliating defeat, the French Government reprimanded Roze. (Sterner, 2003)
Grave-Robbing in the Name of God
Two decades later in 1867, the French Catholic Church made another attempt to revenge the Korean King for the murder of the nine Frenchmen in Korea. Father Feron heard from his Korean converts that the grave of the current Korean king’s grandfather contained much gold and gems. In addition to the treasures, Feron thought that he could dig up the royal remains and hold them to exact redress from the Korean king for the murder of the Frenchmen. Feron enlisted Earnest Oppert, a German adventurer, and F. H. Jenkins, an American businessman. Jenkins financed the adventure for a lion's share of the treasures expected. The grave robbers charted the armed steamer China and hired 8 Europeans, 100 Chinese and 21 Malay pirates in addition to the ship's regular crew.
On April 30. 1867, the steamer China with Father Feron and his 'Army of God' left Shanghai for Nagasaki, where arms were purchased for the 'army', and on May 9th, Feron's army arrived at the Han River estuary, where they were met by Korean Catholics, who guided the grave robbers to the royal burial ground. They dug down deep and reached a massive sarcophagus, but they were unable to lift the heavy stone lid. By this time, a large crowd of local residents gathered around them and began to attack, and the 'Army of God' was forced to retreat without taking any 'loots'. They returned to Shanghai empty-handed. Jenkins and his American investors lost their venture money.
The Occidental community of Shanghai was deeply upset by this grotesque barbaric act. Oppert left for Germany, where he was jailed for one year. A trial court presided over by George F. Seward, the American Consul-General of Shanghai, cleared Jenkins of any wrongdoing. The French refused to prosecute Father Feron and the Catholic Church of Rome claimed it did not know any 'Father Feron', who went on "spreading the Gospel" in China. (Lee Wha Rang, 2000; Williams, 1880)
Enraged by the French invasion and Father Feron's grave robbery in the name of God, the Chosun court retaliated by killing more Catholics. During the next three years, more than ten thousands Catholics and anyone related to the Church were executed. Tens of thousands more fled to the mountains, many of whom died from exposure and hunger. The King's determination to keep out foreign devils and their Korean supporters was redoubled. (Hulber, 1898) The persecution of the Catholics continued unabated until the 1882 US-Chosun Chemulpo Treaty that allowed American missionaries to work in Korea.In the year 1613 one `Coree' was kidnapped from the Cape by a homeward-bound Indiaman (Hector, Captain Towerson) and carried back to London. There, although lodged in Sir Thomas's own house, cherished and adorned with a suit of brazen armour, he was unhappy: `for when he had learned a little of our language he would daily lie upon the ground and cry very often thus in broken English, "Coree go home, Souldania go, home go.'"annexation of Portugal by Spain in 1580 –Seats on the board of directors were allotted proportionately; the `Heeren majores in patria,' commonly known as the Heeren XVII, divided themselves as to eight from Amsterdam and four from Zeeland, the remaining five members being shared by the smaller provinces. Russian corn and Scandinavian timber, hemp and tar being carried south, but it was soon extended to the Mediterranean, previously dominated by the Genoese and Venetians; a Dutch consulate was established in Constantinople, and a Directorate of Mediterranean Trade regulated the merchants. Commercial organization on an unprecedented scale was initiated; Amsterdam merchants not only made a market in all these commodities, but perfected banking and exchange services that served not only Dutch trade, and soon replaced the Hanseatic and Lombard cities as bankers to Europe.Dutch seized the initiative at sea. That dubious collection of patriots and pirates the 'Sea Beggars' defied the mighty Spanish forces, and after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 the Dutch were able to build a battle fleet. While the land war against Spain continued its damaging course the new Dutch squadrons, with astonishing rapidity, became capable of carrying the war into Spain itself; the battle of Gibraltar in 1607 left the Spanish fleet annihilated in its own harbour by the Dutch Admiral Heemskerk.
Behind such a shield Dutch commerce expanded even under the constraints imposed by war. The previous centre of trade, Antwerp, had been left impoverished in the rump of the Spanish Netherlands. From the new commercial capital, Amsterdam, the largest carrying trade in the world developed.
Britain was at that time unable to assert much power in the Indies, where in 1623 the Dutch had underlined their hegemony there by executing a number of English merchants who had set up a competitive enterprise at Amboina; the English government agreed a truce, but popular feeling ran high and was waiting for the moment of revenge. This was many years coming – only in the 1650s did Cromwell's navy begin to make English sea-power felt – and in the meantime the newly established United Provinces of the Netherlands was unchallenged as the principal heir to the Portuguese trading empire in the East.
This collection of fiercely independent and particularist towns and provinces had been subjected to twenty years of oppression by their nominal overlord, the King of Spain. Philip II, who would have made a competent office manager had it not been for his shiftiness, but was a miserable failure as a monarch, had attempted to force his northern possessions back into the fold of Roman Catholicism. Although it was to be another sixty years before the attempt was finally abandoned, by 1585 Spanish persecution had forged an unruly and precarious alliance of seven of the fifteen provinces into a nation. The remaining southern states, approximating to the present-day Belgium, Luxembourg and French Flanders, remained Catholic and subjected, but the northern provinces – those now forming the Kingdom of the Netherlands, popularly known, then as now, by the name of its largest constituent, Holland – developed into an enthusiastically Protestant and mercantile nation.
In 1619 another East India Company commander, Andrew Shilling, formally took possession of the Table Bay, building `King James His Mount' and leaving a small flag with `the natives, which they carefully kept'. ShilSir Thomas Roe, a great explorer, stopped at the Cape in 1615 on his way to the court of the Emperor Jehangir; he was also conveying several `Japanzas' back to their native land. Medieval Arab and Jewish scientists had already produced navigational instruments, the astrolabe and cross-staff being the most important. With these, adapted for use at sea, together with the magnetic compass, in use since the beginning of the fourteenth century, long ocean voyages, and the accurate delineation of newly discovered territories, became feasible.
These techniques were little different from those which had been employed by Chinese mariners for many centuries. The Chinese who visited East Africa at the same time that the Portuguese were feeling their way down the west coast did so in ships at least as well equipped and much larger than those of the Europeans; and the Arab dhows that made the passages to India and even as far as the South China Sea were able, seaworthy vessels. But the caravels and their successors, the carracks, had one decisive advantage, which goes far to explain how Europeans were able to establish extensive empires. The strong and deep hulls of their ships were able to accommodate powerful batteries of cannon: the Regent, built for Henry VII of England in 1495, mounted 225 guns. Against the forces of the great Ottoman, Moghul and Chinese empires European nations could deploy only handfuls of soldiers, but with the naval power at their disposal they could defend any trading posts they might be able to establish in the Indies, and control all maritime trade routes.
4 November 1497, da Gama made his landfall in St Helena Bay, seventy miles north of the future Cape Town, it was after ninety-three days and a distance of 3,770 miles out of sight of land. There he found more Khoikhoi, `swarthy' men who `eat only sea-wolves and whales', whose `arms are staff of wild olives tipped with fire-hardened horns', and whose dogs barked exactly as did those in Portugal. Eventually, in the Treaty of Tordesillas, King João got what he wanted: a boundary between Spain and Portugal running north to south at a distance of 370 leagues (about 1175 miles) west of the Azores, an arrangement that gave to Portugal all Africa, India and China, as well as the yet-to-be-identified country of Brazil. Pope Alexander VI Borgia attempted to settle things between Spain and Portugal in 1493, but King João was not satisfied with the adjudication; the Pope, being a keen family man, with the interests of his daughter Lucrezia and his son Cesare much at heart, had allowed himself to be too openly bribed by Spain.In 1396 the Turks had – with, it might be noted, the enthusiastic assistance of the Serbs – massacred a crusading army at Nicopolis on the Danube. Only Constantinople itself was holding out, and that precariously. Even if the Ottoman empire allowed the precious spices and silks from India and China to pass through to Western Europe, high duties were likely to be added to the already considerable costs of caravan transport.
1949년에는 다시 '한자 전용안'에 의해 문서에 한자를 섞어쓰게 되었다.
이에 반대하여 1964년 성명서를 통하여 한글 학회가 주장한 내용은 다음과 같았다.
일상생활에서 한글만 사용하자.
+1932년12월19일오전7시40분 윤봉길의사 순국by Firing Squad Meiji Jap. 4월29일1932년도 피덩어리로 Shanghai에서아무도않말려구타당하며끌려감Jesuit Nicolas Trigault’s 金尼閣 (1577–1628) Born in Douai (then part of the Spanish Netherlands, now part of France), he became a Jesuit in 1594. Trigault left Europe to do missionary work in Asia around 1610, eventually arriving at Nanjing, China in 1611. He was later brought by the Chinese Catholic Li Zhizao to his hometown of Hangzhou where he worked as one of the first missionaries ever to reach that city and was eventually to die there in 1629. In late 1612 Trigault was appointed by the China Mission's Superior, Niccolo Longobardi as the China Mission's procurator (recruitment and PR representative) in Europe. He sailed from Macau on February 9, 1613, and arrived to Rome on October 11, 1614, by the way of India, Persian Gulf, and Egypt.[1] His tasks involved reporting on the mission's progress to Pope Paul V,[2] successfully negotiating with the Jesuit Order's General Claudio Acquaviva the independence of the China Mission from the Japan Misson, and traveling around Europe to raise money and publicize the work of the Jesuit missions.[1] Peter Paul Rubens did a portrait of Trigault when the latter stopped there in 1617 (at right).[3] It was during this trip to Europe that Trigault edited and translated (from Italian to Latin) Matteo Ricci's "China Journal", or De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas. (He, in fact, started the work aboard the ship when sailing from Macau to India). The work was published in 1615 in Augsburg; it was later translated into many European languages and widely read.[1] The French translation, which appeared in 1616, was translated from Latin by Trigault's own nephew, David-Floris de Riquebourg-Trigault.[4] In April 1618, Trigault sailed from Lisbon with over 20 newly recruited Jesuit missionaries, and arrived in Macau in April 1619.[1] [5] Trigault produced one of the first systems of Chinese Romanisation (based mostly on Ricci's earlier work) in 1626, in his work Xiru Ermu Zi (simplified Chinese: 西儒耳目资; traditional Chinese: 西儒耳目資; pinyin: Xīrú ěrmù zī; literally: "Aid to the Eyes and Ears of Western Literati").[6][7] Trigault wrote his book in Shanxi province.[8] Aided by a converted Chinese, he also produced the first Chinese version of Aesop's Fables (況義 "Analogy"), published in 1625. In the 1620s Trigault became involved in a dispute over the correct Chinese terminology for the Christian God and defended the use of the term Shangdi that had been prohibited in 1625 by the Jesuit Superior General Muzio Vitelleschi. Another fellow Jesuit, André Palmeiro stated that a mentally instable Trigault had become deeply depressed after failing to defend the use of the term, and had committed suicide in 1628.[9] Nicolas Trigault (1577–1628) was a Flemish Jesuit, and a missionary to China. He was also known by his latinised name Trigautius or Trigaultius, and his Chinese name Jin Nige (simplified Chinese: 金尼阁; traditional Chinese: 金尼閣; pinyin: Jīn Nígé). http://ko.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EC%A1%B1
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